Integrated Circuit (IC)

Solid-state transistor (usually just called the transistor) was first found by Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain, three scientists Bell Laboratories in the United States, in the year 1948. It is not excessive to say that the transistor is one of the most important discoveries in the 20th century with the discovery of the structure of DNA technology and the Internet. Progress in technology, processing of materials (material processing) is always accompanied by increasingly canggihnya (more compact, fast, low power consumption) mikroprocessor, which is the brain of the computer. For example, the Pentium chip in 1993 can be found, while 3.1 million transistor Pentium M 2003, has around 77 million transistor.

In general, solid-state transistor that is used in a range of electronics made from semiconductor materials, especially Silicon. In addition to the functions of the electronic, semiconductor materials, especially the type of compound classes III and V (compound semiconductor), can also be used to make tools of solid-state light such as that issued the laser and LED (Light Emitting Diode). Together with Silicon, a semiconductor made of the elements of class III-V is also a key technology in the field of information technology lately.

The uniqueness of semiconductor materials other than the semiconductor can be changed konduktivitasnya (conductivity is the ability to bring the flow of electricity) by intentionally enter into the other elements of semiconductor crystals. This technique is called doping. Silicon crystals are 100% pure cargo have a neutral because all of Silicon valence electrons (there are 4 whole fruit) with a pair valence electron atom Silicon other. Therefore, the crystal has a pure Silicon cargo neutral, so that they can have a flow cargoes or to deliver electricity, should Silicon crystals are not purely made by the atom-atom from the other elements. When the doping with the group III atoms, such as Boron, Silicon crystals have a total cargo and positive if the by-doping group V atoms such as phosphorus, the total negative capacious. Silicon crystal that the total positive capacious called type I and type called a negative n.


If the electrical potential applied to the crystal Silicon, the flow of electricity on the type I and type I will be opposing each other. Placing the type of n and p type will result in a neighboring tool called a diode, which can be used as electronic switches. Contrasting with the diode that has a terminal 2 (p and n), has a transistor 3 (npn or pnp) and can be used as a switch (such as button on / off) or as an electric current amplifier (seumpama volume control on the radio). Currently, most of the transistor, which is in the digital network, such as mikroprocessor in the PC, the transistor is a type of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor-Field-Effect transistor) made of bronze (metal), Silicon dioxide (oxide) and Silicon (semiconductor ), Which has in-DoPe. In making integrated circuit (IC), the first chip based on designing a series of specifications that have been determined. This design is usually done with the help of computer. Then the design will be sent to the IC factory, where the IC will be in manufacturing in a clean room (clean room) that the number of air particles have been controlled through the filter. Finally, the IC has so will be packaged in a package that is installed before we know the board series.

Pentium III
In the Pentium III chip (28 million transistor)

Traffic lights that use LED Silicon addition, compound semiconductor, such as GaAs is also used in making the laser diode, or LED. Breakthrough in the field of materials engineering, recently has blue LED using compound Gan, after dimungkinkannya for DoPe Gan-type p. With this discovery, now the LED is available in various colors, from blue (compound GAN) to red (compound InGaAlP). In Japan, in the next ten years to the buoy-planned traffic signs will be changed from a LED light usual. Than the normal light, the LED have more endurance, power consumption is lower, and the intensity of light so bright that is more suitable for applications such as traffic signs. Besides the LED, diode lasers used in fiber optic transmission system. Along with the increased bandwidth needs will be the Internet, fiber optics system is estimated to be the backbone infrastructure in the future of IT technology.

From the above examples, we can see how the tools of solid-state can be used to improve the quality of life of our day-to-day.

Transistor single atom Progress in this field of Nanotechnology has allowed scientists to control the materials in the super-accurate in the nanometer scale. Years ago, scientists from Cornell University in the U.S. successfully create a single-atom transistor (transistor single atom), made by the experts chemical engineer with local materials. When the voltage of electricity charged to the transistor, electrons flow between electrodes through the cobalt atom (blue in the image of old, middle) be refuted by the pyridine molecule (light blue). In the future breakthroughs in areas such as Nanotechnology will be able to produce this new application.

Computer History

With the occurrence of World War Two, countries involved in the war is trying to develop computer mengeksploit potential strategic owned computer. This increase funding for the development of computers and computer techniques to accelerate progress. In 1941, Konrad Zuse, a German engineer to build a computer, the Z3, for designing aircraft and missile control.
The allies also made progress in the development of computer power. In 1943, the British completed a secret computer code breaker, called Colossus to solve the secret code-used German. Impact of making Colossus is not affecting the development of the computer industry because of two reasons. First, the Colossus computer is not versatile (general-purpose computer), it is only designed to solve the secret code. Second, the existence of this machine is kept confidential until a decade after the war ended.
Business conducted by the United States at the time produce a progress of others. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), a Harvard engineer working with IBM, successfully producing electronic calculator for the U.S. Navy. The calculator is half the size of football fields long legs and has a range of 500 miles cable. The Harvd-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I, an electronic computer relai. He uses electromagnetic signals to drive mechanical components. Beropreasi with these machines, slow (it requires 3-5 seconds for each calculation) is not flexible and (the order of calculation can not be changed). The calculator can perform basic calculations aritmatik and equality that is more complex.
The development of computers now is on the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), created by the cooperation between the United States government and the University of Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistor, and 5 million solder point, the computer is a machine that consume a very large power of 160kW.
This computer was designed by John Presper Eckert (1919-1995) John W. DN Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC computer is a versatile (general purpose computer) that work 1000 times faster than Mark I.
In mid-1940's, John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the team of the University of Pennsylvania in Usha build computer design concept that up to 40 years, still used in computer engineering. Von Neumann designing discrete Electronic Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with sebuh memory to accommodate both programs or data. This technique allows the computer to stop at a time and then resume work again. A key von Neumann architecture is the central processing unit (CPU), which allows all functions of the computer for coordinated through a single source. 1951, UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I) made by Remington Rand, became the first commercial computer models that take advantage of the Von Neumann architecture.
Both the United States Census Bureau and General Electric have UNIVAC. One of the impressive results achieved by their success in the UNIVAC are predict victory Dwilight D. Eisenhower in the 1952 presidential election.
The first generation of computer dikarakteristik with the fact that the operating instructions created specifically for a particular task. Each computer has a program code-binary different called a "language machine" (machine language). This makes it difficult for a computer programmed and the speed limit. Features other computer generation is the first use of the Tube vacuum (which make the computer the size of the very large) DN magnetic cylinder for data storage.

Management Information System (MIS)

When the system will be developed Management Information System should consider human factors carefully. If not so, the system produced is not effective.

Information System has three (3) elements, or main activities, namely:
Input: Receive data as input.
Process: Processing of data by performing calculations, merging elements of the data, updates estimates and others.
Output: Obtaining information as output.
This principle applies to both manual information systems, and Computer Electromechanical

An information system to receive data as input and then process the data, and then turning them into information as output.

Basically, each organization has been the main factors as the crisis of success. This is usually determined by the nature of environmental organizations and the nature of the industry where the organization is part of the industry.
Examples of cases to the company's solid information, the main task is to establish and maintain information systems to continue running well. Examples of the company's solid information is the airline company, where the availability of information is very important for the management of other tasks. For example, the case in the company the main tasks of flight booking passengers from each flight took place in various locations spread thousands of kilometers in distance, use computer information system is needed to determine the status of the flight and set the order for a seat on every flight.

Operating System Computer

Is a computer device consists of components that consists of hardware, software and brainware
one of the software is the main Operating System. Operating system (OS) is a software system that served to make the control and management of hardware and basic operations systems, including software applications run.
Operating System is the first layer of software on the computer to be put on in the memory when the computer starts up. Meanwhile, other software run after running the System Operation and System Operations will conduct public services nucleus for the software. Core public services such as access to the disk, memory management, skeduling task, and the user inter-face.
Operating system has three main functions, namely :
- The management process
Management process includes the preparation, scheduling, and monitoring process on the computer. the process is running programs.
- Management of resources
Management of resources associated with the use of resources in the computer system made by the program or system of application programs that are running on the computer. that meant the resources here are components in the computer hardware such as CPU, main memory and the device input / output.
- Management of data
Management of data on the form of data input / output, including in the case of the secondary storage device and the main memory.
Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediary between the user's computer and computer hardware. the goal is to provide the operating system environment that allows the user to run any program easily